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Atomic clocks are effective at testing general relativity on ever smaller scales. A project to observe twelve atomic clocks from 11 November 1999 to October 2014 resulted in a further demonstration that Einstein's theory of general relativity is accurate at small scales. [153]
A quantum clock is a type of atomic clock with laser cooled single ions confined together in an electromagnetic ion trap. Developed in 2010 by physicists at the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology , the clock was 37 times more precise than the then-existing international standard. [ 1 ]
The first caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK [1] and promoted worldwide by Gernot M. R. Winkler of the United States Naval Observatory. Caesium atomic clocks are one of the most accurate time and frequency standards, and serve as the primary standard for the definition of the second in ...
The reliability of atomic clocks is far greater than in everyday clocks that measure seconds in vibrations of quartz crystals, which are prone to dropping out of sync.
The expected performance of a single-ion nuclear clock was further investigated in 2012 by Corey Campbell et al. with the result that a systematic frequency uncertainty (accuracy) of the clock of 1.5 × 10 −19 could be achieved, which would be by about an order of magnitude better than the accuracy achieved by the best optical atomic clocks ...
The caesium atomic clock became practical after 1950, when advances in electronics enabled reliable measurement of the microwave frequencies it generates. As further advances occurred, atomic clock research has progressed to ever-higher frequencies, which can provide higher accuracy and higher precision. Clocks based on these techniques have ...
Commercial rubidium clocks are less accurate than caesium atomic clocks, which serve as primary frequency standards, so a rubidium clock is usually used as a secondary frequency standard. Commercial rubidium frequency standards operate by disciplining a crystal oscillator to the rubidium hyperfine transition of 6.8 GHz (6 834 682 610.904 Hz).
NIST-F1 is a cesium fountain clock, a type of atomic clock, in the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in Boulder, Colorado, and serves as the United States' primary time and frequency standard. The clock took fewer than four years to test and build, and was developed by Steve Jefferts and Dawn Meekhof of the Time and ...