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A simple way to calculate the mean of a series of angles (in the interval [0°, 360°)) is to calculate the mean of the cosines and sines of each angle, and obtain the angle by calculating the inverse tangent. Consider the following three angles as an example: 10, 20, and 30 degrees.
There are associated concepts, such as the DRMS (distance root mean square), which is the square root of the average squared distance error, a form of the standard deviation. Another is the R95, which is the radius of the circle where 95% of the values would fall, a 95% confidence interval .
The simple method for calculating circular variance requires two passes through the list of values. The first pass determines the circular mean of those values, while the second pass determines the variance. This double-pass method requires access to all values.
If the mean anomaly is known at any given instant, it can be calculated at any later (or prior) instant by simply adding (or subtracting) n⋅δt where δt represents the small time difference. Mean anomaly does not measure an angle between any physical objects (except at pericenter or apocenter, or for a circular orbit).
These moments are referred to as circular moments. The variance calculated from these moments is referred to as the circular variance. The one exception to this is that the "mean" usually refers to the argument of the complex mean. The nth raw moment of z is:
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