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Hegel's friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer (1766–1848) financially supported Hegel and used his political influence to help him obtain multiple positions. In Bamberg, as editor of the Bamberger Zeitung , which was a pro-French newspaper, Hegel extolled the virtues of Napoleon and often editorialized the Prussian accounts of the war. [37]
[15] [20] Cholera reached the Pacific coast of North America by 1834, reaching into the center of the country by steamboat and other river traffic. [21] The third cholera pandemic began in 1846 and lasted until 1860. It hit Russia hardest, with over one million deaths. In 1846, cholera struck Mecca, killing over 15,000. [22]
Richard Pearson Strong (1872–1948) was a tropical medicine professor at Harvard who did significant work on plague, cholera, bacillary dysentery and other diseases. He was the first professor of tropical medicine at Harvard, where he critically infected 24 unknowing victims with cholera, causing 13 of their deaths.
Deaths in India between 1817 and 1860 in the first three pandemics of the nineteenth century, are estimated to have exceeded 15 million people. Another 23 million died between 1865 and 1917, during the next three pandemics. Cholera deaths in the Russian Empire during a similar time period exceeded 2 million. [5]
The deaths of more than 1,100 people in New York City in 1866 resulted in the establishment of the New York Metropolitan Board of Health. [ 8 ] In 1867, Italy lost 113,000 to cholera, and 80,000 died of the disease in Algeria . [ 3 ]
The pandemic reappeared in 1891 and originated in Bengal when 60,000 Hindu pilgrims arrived at a small village to celebrate a bathing festival unknown to the authorities. The pilgrims caused new immense cholera outbreaks in northern India during 1891, with more than 580,000 cholera deaths in Assam, Bengal, and Uttar Pradesh. [17]
The history of virology – the scientific study of viruses and the infections they cause – began in the closing years of the 19th century. Although Edward Jenner and Louis Pasteur developed the first vaccines to protect against viral infections, they did not know that viruses existed. The first evidence of the existence of viruses came from ...
The first cholera vaccines were developed in the late 19th century. There were several pioneers in the development of the vaccine: The first known attempt at a cholera vaccine was made by Louis Pasteur and it was aimed at preventing cholera in chickens. [29] This was the first widely used vaccine that was made in a laboratory. [16]