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In calculus, integration by substitution, also known as u-substitution, reverse chain rule or change of variables, [1] is a method for evaluating integrals and antiderivatives. It is the counterpart to the chain rule for differentiation , and can loosely be thought of as using the chain rule "backwards."
The substitution is described in most integral calculus textbooks since the late 19th century, usually without any special name. [5] It is known in Russia as the universal trigonometric substitution, [6] and also known by variant names such as half-tangent substitution or half-angle substitution.
A very simple example of a useful variable change can be seen in the problem of finding the roots of the sixth-degree polynomial: x 6 − 9 x 3 + 8 = 0. {\displaystyle x^{6}-9x^{3}+8=0.} Sixth-degree polynomial equations are generally impossible to solve in terms of radicals (see Abel–Ruffini theorem ).
Fundamental theorem of calculus; Integration by parts; Inverse chain rule method; Integration by substitution. Tangent half-angle substitution; Differentiation under the integral sign; Trigonometric substitution; Partial fractions in integration. Quadratic integral; Proof that 22/7 exceeds π; Trapezium rule; Integral of the secant function ...
Example 1a. The function is f(x, y) = (x − 1) 2 + √ y; if one adopts the substitution u = x − 1, v = y therefore x = u + 1, y = v one obtains the new function f 2 (u, v) = (u) 2 + √ v. Similarly for the domain because it is delimited by the original variables that were transformed before (x and y in example)
In calculus, interchange of the order of integration is a methodology that transforms iterated integrals (or multiple integrals through the use of Fubini's theorem) of functions into other, hopefully simpler, integrals by changing the order in which the integrations are performed. In some cases, the order of integration can be validly ...
Functions that maximize or minimize functionals may be found using the Euler–Lagrange equation of the calculus of variations. A simple example of such a problem is to find the curve of shortest length connecting two points. If there are no constraints, the solution is a straight line between the points. However, if the curve is constrained to ...
which we can recognize as eigenvalue problems for the operators for and . If T {\displaystyle T} is a compact, self-adjoint operator on the space L 2 [ 0 , l ] {\displaystyle L^{2}[0,l]} along with the relevant boundary conditions, then by the Spectral theorem there exists a basis for L 2 [ 0 , l ] {\displaystyle L^{2}[0,l]} consisting of ...
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