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Before the expansion of early modern European powers, other empires had conquered and colonized territories, such as the Roman Empire in Europe, North Africa and Western Asia. Modern colonial empires first emerged with a race of exploration between the then most advanced European maritime powers, Portugal and Spain, during the 15th century. [2]
A Diplomatic History of Europe Since the Congress of Vienna (1958), 736pp; a basic introduction, 1815–1955 online free to borrow; Baumgart, Winfried. Imperialism: The Idea and Reality of British and French Colonial Expansion, 1880–1914 (1982) Betts, Raymond F. The False Dawn: European Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century (1975)
European Imperialism, 1860–1914 (1996), Brief survey focuses on historiography; Roberts, Stephen H. History of French Colonial Policy (1870–1925) (2 vol 1929) vol 1 online also vol 2 online; comprehensive scholarly history; Savelle, Max. Empires to Nations: Expansion in America, 1713–1824 (1975) Smith, Tony.
In diplomatic history, the Eastern question was the issue of the political and economic instability in the Ottoman Empire from the late 18th to early 20th centuries and the subsequent strategic competition and political considerations of the European great powers in light of this.
Conflict between the various European empires and the indigenous peoples was a leading dynamic in the Americas into the 1800s, although some parts of the continent gained their independence from Europe by then, countries such as the United States continued to fight against Native Americans and practiced settler colonialism.
The New Map of Africa (1900–1916): A History of European Colonial Expansion and Colonial Diplomacy (1916) online free; Hopkins, Anthony G., and Peter J. Cain. British Imperialism: 1688–2015 (Routledge, 2016). Mackenzie, John, ed. The Encyclopedia of Empire (4 vol 2016) Maltby, William. The Rise and Fall of the Spanish Empire (2008).
At the end of the first wave a new wave of European colonization took shape and is known as the period of New Imperialism, which started in the late 19th-century and primarily focused on Africa and Asia, which is congruent with the period of classical modernity. Both periods are considered as the establishing periods of globalization and modernity
The European countries which had the most colonies throughout history were: United Kingdom (130), France (90), ...