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In artificial neural networks, a convolutional layer is a type of network layer that applies a convolution operation to the input. Convolutional layers are some of the primary building blocks of convolutional neural networks (CNNs), a class of neural network most commonly applied to images, video, audio, and other data that have the property of uniform translational symmetry.
A convolutional neural network (CNN) is a regularized type of feedforward neural network that learns features by itself via filter (or kernel) optimization. This type of deep learning network has been applied to process and make predictions from many different types of data including text, images and audio. [1]
The first convolutional layers perform feature extraction. For the 28x28 pixel MNIST image test an initial 256 9x9 pixel convolutional kernels (using stride 1 and rectified linear unit (ReLU) activation, defining 20x20 receptive fields ) convert the pixel input into 1D feature activations and induce nonlinearity.
ConeBeam computerized tomography image of a post-operative orthognathic surgery. Oral and maxillofacial radiology, also known as dental and maxillofacial radiology, or even more common DentoMaxilloFacial Radiology, is the specialty of dentistry concerned with performance and interpretation of diagnostic imaging used for examining the craniofacial, dental and adjacent structures.
AlexNet contains eight layers: the first five are convolutional layers, some of them followed by max-pooling layers, and the last three are fully connected layers. The network, except the last layer, is split into two copies, each run on one GPU. [1] The entire structure can be written as
There is an average pooling of stride 2 at the start of each downsampling convolutional layer (they called it rect-2 blur pooling according to the terminology of [21]). This has the effect of blurring images before downsampling, for antialiasing. [22] The final convolutional layer is followed by a multiheaded attention pooling.
1994 LeNet was a larger version of 1989 LeNet designed to fit the larger MNIST database. It had more feature maps in its convolutional layers, and had an additional layer of hidden units, fully connected to both the last convolutional layer and to the output units. It has 2 convolutions, 2 average poolings, and 2 fully connected layers.
The graph convolutional network (GCN) was first introduced by Thomas Kipf and Max Welling in 2017. [9] A GCN layer defines a first-order approximation of a localized spectral filter on graphs. GCNs can be understood as a generalization of convolutional neural networks to graph-structured data. The formal expression of a GCN layer reads as follows: