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Disconfirmed expectancy is a psychological term for what is commonly known as a failed prophecy.According to the American social psychologist Leon Festinger's theory of cognitive dissonance, disconfirmed expectancies create a state of psychological discomfort because the outcome contradicts expectancy.
This theory [7] proposed that there are two different stages linked with various cognitive mindsets that support an individual's attainment of a goal. The deliberative stage, where the mind considers whether to pursue the goal, and the implementation stage, which takes into account the various circumstances in implementing the selected goal.
It is not an alternative to the theory but rather a model that incorporates the many facets of cognitive dissonance theory. Cognitive dissonance theory centers mainly on: Cognition; Self-concept; Social identity; Human beings may give greater importance to one of these areas but no single factor will be the sole influence.
Vicarious cognitive dissonance was first proposed and demonstrated in a series of three closely related studies by Norton et al. (2003). [3] Drawing upon social identity theory, the researchers tested the hypothesis that dissonance could be felt through witnessing attitude-discrepant behavior from an in-group member that one identifies with.
Cognitive dissonance theory explains changes in people's attitudes or beliefs as the result of an attempt to reduce a dissonance (discrepancy) between contradicting ideas or cognitions. In the case of effort justification, there is a dissonance between the amount of effort exerted into achieving a goal or completing a task (high effort ...
James Merrill Carlsmith (April 12, 1936 – April 19, 1984) [1] was an American social psychologist perhaps best known for his collaboration with Leon Festinger and Elliot Aronson in the creation and development of cognitive dissonance theory. He also worked extensively with Mark Lepper on the subject of attribution theory.
Status inconsistency is a situation where an individual's social positions have both positive and negative influences on their social status.For example, a teacher may have a positive societal image (respect, prestige) which increases their status but may earn little money, which simultaneously decreases their status.
The theory of insufficient justification formally states that when extrinsic motivation is low, people are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance by generating an intrinsic motivation to explain their behavior, and similarly more likely to decline a desired activity when presented with a mild threat versus a more serious threat. Insufficient ...