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In mathematics, the floor function is the function that takes as input a real number x, and gives as output the greatest integer less than or equal to x, denoted ⌊x⌋ or floor(x). Similarly, the ceiling function maps x to the least integer greater than or equal to x, denoted ⌈x⌉ or ceil(x). [1]
However, division can be expensive and, in cryptographic settings, might not be a constant-time instruction on some CPUs, subjecting the operation to a timing attack. Thus Barrett reduction approximates 1 / n {\displaystyle 1/n} with a value m / 2 k {\displaystyle m/2^{k}} because division by 2 k {\displaystyle 2^{k}} is just a right-shift, and ...
In computing, the modulo operation returns the remainder or signed remainder of a division, after one number is divided by another, called the modulus of the operation.. Given two positive numbers a and n, a modulo n (often abbreviated as a mod n) is the remainder of the Euclidean division of a by n, where a is the dividend and n is the divisor.
In the division of 43 by 5, we have: 43 = 8 × 5 + 3, so 3 is the least positive remainder. We also have that: 43 = 9 × 5 − 2, and −2 is the least absolute remainder. These definitions are also valid if d is negative, for example, in the division of 43 by −5, 43 = (−8) × (−5) + 3, and 3 is the least positive remainder, while,
Python supports normal floating point numbers, which are created when a dot is used in a literal (e.g. 1.1), when an integer and a floating point number are used in an expression, or as a result of some mathematical operations ("true division" via the / operator, or exponentiation with a negative exponent).
/// Performs a Karatsuba square root on a `u64`. pub fn u64_isqrt (mut n: u64)-> u64 {if n <= u32:: MAX as u64 {// If `n` fits in a `u32`, let the `u32` function handle it. return u32_isqrt (n as u32) as u64;} else {// The normalization shift satisfies the Karatsuba square root // algorithm precondition "a₃ ≥ b/4" where a₃ is the most ...
Long division is the standard algorithm used for pen-and-paper division of multi-digit numbers expressed in decimal notation. It shifts gradually from the left to the right end of the dividend, subtracting the largest possible multiple of the divisor (at the digit level) at each stage; the multiples then become the digits of the quotient, and the final difference is then the remainder.
However, Square brackets, as in = 3, are sometimes used to denote the floor function, which rounds a real number down to the next integer. Conversely, some authors use outwards pointing square brackets to denote the ceiling function, as in ]π[ = 4. Braces, as in {π} < 1 / 7, may denote the fractional part of a real number.