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If concrete is exposed to very high temperatures very rapidly, explosive spalling of the concrete can result. In a very hot, very quick fire the water inside the concrete will boil before it evaporates. The steam inside the concrete exerts expansive pressure and can initiate and forcibly expel a spall. [23]
Explosive spalling events of refractory concrete can result in serious problems. If an explosive spalling occurs, projectiles of reasonable mass (1–10 kg) can be thrust violently over many metres, which will have safety implications and render the refractory structure unfit for service.
Pervious concrete and asphalt designed to reduce frost heave and spalling damage has been used successfully in Norway and New Hampshire. [19] Furthermore, experience suggests that preventive measures with rapid drainage below porous surfaces be taken in order to increase the rate of snow melt above ground.
More severe cases involve pumping of fines, spalling, and loose pieces of pavement. The most severe cases of fatigue cracking often occur with other pavement distresses, but are exemplified by: potholes, [ 1 ] large cracks (3/8" or larger), and severely spalled edges.
Concrete spalling from the ceiling of an office unit (interior) in Singapore, possibly due to rebar corrosion. Reinforced concrete can fail due to inadequate strength, leading to mechanical failure, or due to a reduction in its durability. Corrosion and freeze/thaw cycles may damage poorly designed or constructed reinforced concrete.
The High Speed 1 tunnel linings incorporated concrete containing 1 kg/m 3 or more of polypropylene fibers, of diameter 18 & 32 μm, giving the benefits noted below. [16] Adding fine diameter polypropylene fibers, not only provides reinforcement in tunnel lining, but also prevents "spalling" and damage of lining in case of fire due to accident. [17]
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