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Further, confirmation biases can sustain scientific theories or research programs in the face of inadequate or even contradictory evidence. [60] [95] The discipline of parapsychology is often cited as an example. [96] An experimenter's confirmation bias can potentially affect which data are reported.
Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, focus on and remember information in a way that confirms one's preconceptions. [31] There are multiple other cognitive biases which involve or are types of confirmation bias: Backfire effect, a tendency to react to disconfirming evidence by strengthening one's previous beliefs. [32]
For example, a high prevalence of disease in a study population increases positive predictive values, which will cause a bias between the prediction values and the real ones. [ 4 ] Observer selection bias occurs when the evidence presented has been pre-filtered by observers, which is so-called anthropic principle .
Double blind techniques may be employed to combat bias by causing the experimenter and subject to be ignorant of which condition data flows from. It might be thought that, due to the central limit theorem of statistics, collecting more independent measurements will improve the precision of estimates, thus decreasing bias. However, this assumes ...
Some scholars classify cherry-picking as a fallacy of selective attention, the most common example of which is the confirmation bias. [3] Cherry picking can refer to the selection of data or data sets so a study or survey will give desired, predictable results which may be misleading or even completely contrary to reality. [4]
Attrition bias is a kind of selection bias caused by attrition (loss of participants), [13] discounting trial subjects/tests that did not run to completion. It is closely related to the survivorship bias , where only the subjects that "survived" a process are included in the analysis or the failure bias , where only the subjects that "failed" a ...
Statistics, when used in a misleading fashion, can trick the casual observer into believing something other than what the data shows. That is, a misuse of statistics occurs when a statistical argument asserts a falsehood. In some cases, the misuse may be accidental. In others, it is purposeful and for the gain of the perpetrator.
Selective exposure is a theory within the practice of psychology, often used in media and communication research, that historically refers to individuals' tendency to favor information which reinforces their pre-existing views while avoiding contradictory information.