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Elliott Brothers of London registered an "improved clinometer and spirit level combined" in December 1870 based on "the old form as originally designed by Lieutenant Abney." [4] By 1871, a committee of the Royal Geographical Society recommended a long list of instruments that explorers should carry. Along with necessary tools such as a watch ...
Most water in Earth's atmosphere and crust comes from saline seawater, while fresh water accounts for nearly 1% of the total. The vast bulk of the water on Earth is saline or salt water, with an average salinity of 35‰ (or 3.5%, roughly equivalent to 34 grams of salts in 1 kg of seawater), though this varies slightly according to the amount of runoff received from surrounding land.
Different parts of the ocean do have slightly different isotopic concentrations: δ 18 O values range from –11.35‰ in water off the coast of Greenland to +1.32‰ in the north Atlantic, and δ 2 H concentrations in deep ocean water range from roughly –1.7‰ near Antarctica to +2.2‰ in the Arctic. Variations are much larger in surface ...
Example Bjerrum plot: Change in carbonate system of seawater from ocean acidification.. A Bjerrum plot (named after Niels Bjerrum), sometimes also known as a Sillén diagram (after Lars Gunnar Sillén), or a Hägg diagram (after Gunnar Hägg) [1] is a graph of the concentrations of the different species of a polyprotic acid in a solution, as a function of pH, [2] when the solution is at ...
Water in the mantle is responsible for the melt that produces volcanoes at subduction zones. On the surface of the Earth, water is important in both chemical and physical weathering processes. Water, and to a lesser but still significant extent, ice, are also responsible for a large amount of sediment transport that occurs on the surface of the ...
At a basic level, it is typically calculated in metres using the formula: [1] UKC = Charted Depth − Draft-/+ Height of Tide. Ship masters and deck officers can obtain the depth of water from Electronic navigational charts. [5] More dynamic or advanced calculations include safety margins for manoeuvring effects and squat. [7]
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