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Bond length is the average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. It depends on bond order, bond strength, orbital hybridization and electronic and steric effects. Learn about the general trends of bond lengths across the periodic table and in organic compounds.
Learn about the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule, including bond lengths, bond angles, torsional angles and other geometrical parameters. Find out how molecular geometry is determined by spectroscopic methods, quantum chemistry methods and thermal excitation.
Learn about the different types of chemical bonds, such as covalent, ionic and metallic, and how they are formed and described by quantum theory. Find out the properties and examples of molecules and substances that result from various bonding mechanisms.
Learn how the periodic table shows patterns of atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity, valency and metallic character of elements. See the summary of trends across periods and groups, and the exceptions and variations for some elements.
Covalent radius is a measure of the size of an atom that forms part of one covalent bond. It is usually measured in picometres or angstroms, and it depends on the chemical environment and bond order of the atom.
Learn about the ordered arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules in a crystalline material, and how to describe it by unit cell, lattice parameters, space groups, and Miller indices. Find out how crystal structure affects its physical properties, such as optical transparency, cleavage, and plastic deformation.
Ionization energy is the minimum energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron of an atom, ion, or molecule. Learn about its definition, trends, influences, and measurement methods from this comprehensive article.
Nitrogen is a nonmetal and the lightest member of group 15 of the periodic table. It forms about 78% of Earth's atmosphere and is essential for life, but also has many industrial and environmental applications. Learn about its discovery, allotropes, isotopes and more.