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That is, there is no way to start from the differential equations implied by Newton's laws and, after a finite sequence of standard mathematical operations, obtain equations that express the three bodies' motions over time. [56] [57] Numerical methods can be applied to obtain useful, albeit approximate, results for the three-body problem. [58]
There are two main descriptions of motion: dynamics and kinematics.Dynamics is general, since the momenta, forces and energy of the particles are taken into account. In this instance, sometimes the term dynamics refers to the differential equations that the system satisfies (e.g., Newton's second law or Euler–Lagrange equations), and sometimes to the solutions to those equations.
The second term in the above equation, plays the role of a gravitational force. If f f α {\displaystyle f_{f}^{\alpha }} is the correct expression for force in a freely falling frame ξ α {\displaystyle \xi ^{\alpha }} , we can use then the equivalence principle to write the four-force in an arbitrary coordinate x μ {\displaystyle x^{\mu }} :
This constitutive equation is also called the Newton law of viscosity. The total stress tensor σ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}} can always be decomposed as the sum of the isotropic stress tensor and the deviatoric stress tensor ( σ ′ {\displaystyle {\boldsymbol {\sigma }}'} ):
The Onsager reciprocal relations have been considered the fourth law of thermodynamics. [ 15 ] [ 16 ] [ 17 ] They describe the relation between thermodynamic flows and forces in non-equilibrium thermodynamics , under the assumption that thermodynamic variables can be defined locally in a condition of local equilibrium .
The first test of Newton's law of gravitation between masses in the laboratory was the Cavendish experiment conducted by the British scientist Henry Cavendish in 1798. [5] It took place 111 years after the publication of Newton's Principia and approximately 71 years after his death.
Prof. Odlyzko estimates that if Newton had bought and held his South Sea shares continuously from early 1712 through 1723, when the stock stabilized after the bursting of the bubble, he would have ...
This appears to simply be an expression of Newton's second law (F = ma) in terms of body forces instead of point forces. Each term in any case of the Navier–Stokes equations is a body force. A shorter though less rigorous way to arrive at this result would be the application of the chain rule to acceleration:
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