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  2. Water fluoridation - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_fluoridation

    Pitcher or faucet-mounted water filters do not alter fluoride content; the more-expensive reverse osmosis filters remove 65–95% of fluoride, and distillation removes all fluoride. [11] Some bottled waters contain undeclared fluoride, which can be present naturally in source waters, or if water is sourced from a public supply which has been ...

  3. Reverse osmosis - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_osmosis

    Reverse osmosis is a more economical way to concentrate liquids (such as fruit juices) than conventional heat-treatment. Concentration of orange and tomato juice has advantages including a lower operating cost and the ability to avoid heat-treatment, which makes it suitable for heat-sensitive substances such as protein and enzymes .

  4. Water purification - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_purification

    Reverse osmosis involves mechanical pressure applied to force water through a semi-permeable membrane. Contaminants are left on the other side of the membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water purification available, although perfect semi-permeable membranes are difficult to create.

  5. Membrane scaling - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_scaling

    Figure 1: SEM image of a virgin (new) RO membrane that has not been scaled Figure 2: SEM image of a RO membrane that has been scaled. Membrane scaling is when one or more sparingly soluble salts (e.g., calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, etc.) precipitate and form a dense layer on the membrane surface in reverse osmosis (RO) applications. [1]

  6. Membrane fouling - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_fouling

    Fouling of a membrane in different steps 1–5. 1) virgin membrane 2) pore narrowing 3) pore blocking 4) cake layer formation 5) cleaned membrane Membrane fouling is a process whereby a solution or a particle is deposited on a membrane surface or in membrane pores in a processes such as in a membrane bioreactor, [1] reverse osmosis, [2] forward osmosis, [3] membrane distillation, [4 ...

  7. Microfiltration - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microfiltration

    Reverse osmosis (RO) is the finest separation membrane process available, pore sizes range from 0.0001 μm to 0.001 μm. Reverse osmosis is able to retain almost all molecules except for water, and due to the size of the pores, the required osmotic pressure is significantly greater than that for microfiltration.

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