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Off-by-one errors are common in using the C library because it is not consistent with respect to whether one needs to subtract 1 byte – functions like fgets() and strncpy will never write past the length given them (fgets() subtracts 1 itself, and only retrieves (length − 1) bytes), whereas others, like strncat will write past the length given them.
Common exceptions include an invalid argument (e.g. value is outside of the domain of a function), [5] an unavailable resource (like a missing file, [6] a network drive error, [7] or out-of-memory errors [8]), or that the routine has detected a normal condition that requires special handling, e.g., attention, end of file. [9]
Additionally, because they are basic values and not objects, they have no inherent semantics beyond that which is expressed in a helper routine which necessarily cannot be foolproof because of the representation overloading in effect (e.g., one cannot differentiate two integers of the same value)." [3]
A list may contain the same value more than once, and each occurrence is considered a distinct item. A singly-linked list structure, implementing a list with three integer elements. The term list is also used for several concrete data structures that can be used to implement abstract lists, especially linked lists and arrays.
The actual values are only computed when needed. For example, one could create a function that creates an infinite list (often called a stream) of Fibonacci numbers. The calculation of the n-th Fibonacci number would be merely the extraction of that element from the infinite list, forcing the evaluation of only the first n members of the list.
This is especially true of cryptographic hash functions, which may be used to detect many data corruption errors and verify overall data integrity; if the computed checksum for the current data input matches the stored value of a previously computed checksum, there is a very high probability the data has not been accidentally altered or corrupted.
One common demonstration of side effect behavior is that of the assignment operator in C. The assignment a = b is an expression that evaluates to the same value as the expression b, with the side effect of storing the R-value of b into the L-value of a. This allows multiple assignment:
Digital Equipment Corporation RT11 systems had trap vectors for program errors, i/o interrupts, and such. DOS has certain interrupt addresses. Microsoft Windows has specific module calls to trap program errors.