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In mathematics and computer programming, exponentiating by squaring is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix. Some variants are commonly referred to as square-and-multiply algorithms or binary exponentiation.
Modular exponentiation can be done using exponentiation by squaring by initializing the initial product to the Montgomery representation of 1, that is, to R mod N, and by replacing the multiply and square steps by Montgomery multiplies. Performing these operations requires knowing at least N′ and R 2 mod N.
Here, the order of the generator, | g |, is the number of non-zero elements of the field. In the case of GF(2 8) this is 2 8 − 1 = 255. That is to say, for the Rijndael example: (x + 1) 255 = 1. So this can be performed with two look up tables and an integer subtract. Using this idea for exponentiation also derives benefit:
Modular exponentiation is the remainder when an integer b (the base) is raised to the power e (the exponent), and divided by a positive integer m (the modulus); that is, c = b e mod m. From the definition of division, it follows that 0 ≤ c < m .
Horner's method is a fast, code-efficient method for multiplication and division of binary numbers on a microcontroller with no hardware multiplier. One of the binary numbers to be multiplied is represented as a trivial polynomial, where (using the above notation) a i = 1 {\displaystyle a_{i}=1} , and x = 2 {\displaystyle x=2} .
A woman who showed signs of intoxication was found with her 2-month-old and 1-year-old babies in Houston, Texas during winter storm Enzo, said police.
Green Bay Packers quarterback Jordan Love and his fiancee Ronika Stone watch a fireworks show during Family Night at Lambeau Field.
The runtime bottleneck of Shor's algorithm is quantum modular exponentiation, which is by far slower than the quantum Fourier transform and classical pre-/post-processing. There are several approaches to constructing and optimizing circuits for modular exponentiation.