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In general, small molecules are also easier to crystallize than macromolecules; however, X-ray crystallography has proven possible even for viruses and proteins with hundreds of thousands of atoms, through improved crystallographic imaging and technology. [96] The technique of single-crystal X-ray crystallography has three basic steps.
The first X-ray diffraction experiment was conducted in 1912 by Max von Laue, [7] while electron diffraction was first realized in 1927 in the Davisson–Germer experiment [8] and parallel work by George Paget Thomson and Alexander Reid. [9] These developed into the two main branches of crystallography, X-ray crystallography and electron ...
X-ray powder diffraction fingerprinting has become the standard tool for the identification of single or multiple crystal phases and is widely used in such fields as metallurgy, mineralogy, forensic science, archeology, condensed matter physics, and the biological and pharmaceutical sciences.
As the crystal's repeating unit, its unit cell, becomes larger and more complex, the atomic-level picture provided by X-ray crystallography becomes less well-resolved (more "fuzzy") for a given number of observed reflections. Two limiting cases of X-ray crystallography are often discerned, "small-molecule" and "macromolecular" crystallography.
X-ray powder diffractometer Bruker D8 Advance at FZU – Institute of Physics of the Czech Academy of Sciences. Laboratory X-ray diffraction equipment relies on the use of an X-ray tube, which is used to produce the X-rays. The most commonly used laboratory X-ray tube uses a copper anode, but cobalt and molybdenum are also popular.
Isomorphous replacement (IR) is historically the most common approach to solving the phase problem in X-ray crystallography studies of proteins.For protein crystals this method is conducted by soaking the crystal of a sample to be analyzed with a heavy atom solution or co-crystallization with the heavy atom.
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X-ray diffraction topography is one variant of X-ray imaging, making use of diffraction contrast rather than absorption contrast which is usually used in radiography and computed tomography (CT). Topography is exploited to a lesser extent with neutrons , and is the same concept as dark field imaging in an electron microscope .