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Research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, "higher R&D spending does not guarantee more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share". [ 14 ]
Public research and development (Public R&D) refers to the R&D activities related to public sectors, including governments, colleges and non-profit organizations. [2] Public R&D include academic fundamental research, applied research and R&D grants and contracts to private sectors, where later two are known as 'R&D subsidy'.
Responsible Research and Innovation (RRI) is a term used by the European Union's Framework Programmes to describe scientific research and technological development processes that take into account effects and potential impacts on the environment and society.
STAR METRICS (Science and Technology for America's Reinvestment: Measuring the EffecT of Research on Innovation, Competitiveness and Science) was a partnership (STAR METRICS Consortium) between United States federal science agencies and research institutions to document the return on investment, research impact, and social outcomes of federally funded research and development.
The importance of stone tools, circa 2.5 million years ago, is considered fundamental in the human development in the hunting hypothesis. [citation needed]Primatologist, Richard Wrangham, theorizes that the control of fire by early humans and the associated development of cooking was the spark that radically changed human evolution. [2]
Artistic research, also seen as 'practice-based research', can take form when creative works are considered both the research and the object of research itself. It is the debatable body of thought which offers an alternative to purely scientific methods in research in its search for knowledge and truth.
Since the 1960s, private businesses in the U.S. have provided an increasing share of funding for research and development, as direct federal funding waned. [1] Research and development intensity (R&D intensity) is generally defined as expenditures by a firm on its research and development divided by the firm's sales. [2]
According to United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, ″Research and development (R&D) expenditure as a proportion of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is defined as the total intramural expenditure on research and experimental development (R&D) performed in the national territory during a specific reference period expressed as a percentage ...