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In mathematics, exponentiation, denoted b n, is an operation involving two numbers: the base, b, and the exponent or power, n. [1] When n is a positive integer, exponentiation corresponds to repeated multiplication of the base: that is, b n is the product of multiplying n bases: [1] = ⏟.
If exponentiation is indicated by stacked symbols using superscript notation, the usual rule is to work from the top down: [2] [7] a b c = a (b c) which typically is not equal to (a b) c. This convention is useful because there is a property of exponentiation that (a b) c = a bc, so it's unnecessary to use serial exponentiation for this.
It is also known as Carmichael's λ function, the reduced totient function, and the least universal exponent function. The order of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n is φ(n), where φ is Euler's totient function. Since the order of an element of a finite group divides the order of the group, λ(n) divides φ(n).
The matrix exponential satisfies the following properties. [2] We begin with the properties that are immediate consequences of the definition as a power series: e 0 = I; exp(X T) = (exp X) T, where X T denotes the transpose of X. exp(X ∗) = (exp X) ∗, where X ∗ denotes the conjugate transpose of X. If Y is invertible then e YXY −1 = Ye ...
A field is an algebraic structure composed of a set of elements, F, two binary operations, addition (+) such that F forms an abelian group with identity 0 F and multiplication (·), such that F excluding 0 F forms an abelian group under multiplication with identity 1 F, and such that multiplication is distributive over addition, that is for any elements a, b, c in F, one has a · (b + c) = (a ...
Modular exponentiation can be performed with a negative exponent e by finding the modular multiplicative inverse d of b modulo m using the extended Euclidean algorithm. That is: c = b e mod m = d −e mod m, where e < 0 and b ⋅ d ≡ 1 (mod m). Modular exponentiation is efficient to compute, even for very large integers.
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