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August Vollmer: The Father of American Policing. Carolina Academic Press. ISBN 978-1-61163-559-1; Carte, Gene E. and Elaine H. (1975). Police Reform in the United States: The Era of August Vollmer. University of California Press. Parker, Alfred E. (1972). The Berkeley Police Story (Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas, 1972)
The cost of policing rapidly expanded during the 1960s. In 1951, American cities spent $82 per person on policing. Adjusting for inflation, police spending increased over 300% by 2016, to $286 per person. [55] In the 1990s, many law enforcement agencies began to adopt community policing strategies, and others adopted problem-oriented policing.
During the professionalism era of policing, law enforcement agencies concentrated on dealing with felonies and other serious crime, rather than focusing on crime prevention. [29] Following urban unrest in the 1960s, police placed more emphasis on community relations, and enacted reforms such as increased diversity in hiring.
There are also emphases on community policing to build relationships and community trust in law enforcement; the evidence-based policing approach of using of data to assist with decision-making; and the importance of civilian oversight of police work. Nonetheless, instances of misconduct and brutality have continued to occur.
Peak says the diffusion era followed, in which larger departments began to integrate aspects of community policing, often through grants that initiated specialized units. Lastly, the institutionalization era introduced the mass application of community policing programs, in not only large departments but also smaller and more rural ones. [23]
First attested in English in the early 15th century, originally in a range of senses encompassing '(public) policy; state; public order', the word police comes from Middle French police ('public order, administration, government'), [10] in turn from Latin politia, [11] which is the romanization of the Ancient Greek πολιτεία (politeia) 'citizenship, administration, civil polity'. [12]
Orlando Winfield Wilson (May 15, 1900 – October 18, 1972), also known as O. W. Wilson, was an American police officer, later becoming a leader in policing along with authoring several books on policing.
It is common to broadly categorize the functions of a criminal justice system into policing, adjudication (i.e.: courts), and corrections, although other categorization schemes exist. [2] Comparativists study the four different types of societies [ clarify ] , their methods of enforcement and their different types of punishment such as capital ...