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Ilm al-kalam [a] or ilm al-lahut, [b] often shortened to kalam, is the scholastic, speculative, or rational study of Islamic theology (). [2] It can also be defined as the science that studies the fundamental doctrines of Islamic faith (usul al-din), proving their validity, or refuting doubts regarding them. [3]
The Faculty of Literature and Humanities includes the following departments and study programs: Arabic Language and Literature (Sastra dan Bahasa Arab), Islamic History and Civilization (Sejarah dan Peradaban Islam), Translation (Tarjamah), and Library Sciences (Ilmu Kepustakaan).
An irreversible shift to scripturalist Islam occurs, which is in Gellner’s view is the equivalent of secularisation in the West. [13] Bruinessen finds this too limited, and distinguishes three overlapping spheres: [13] Shari`a-oriented Islam, Sufism (mystical Islam, which has its learned and popular variants),
Islam [a] is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion centered on the Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, [9] the religion's founder. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number 1.9 billion worldwide and are the world's second-largest religious population after Christians.
The metaphor of a golden age began to be applied in 19th-century literature about Islamic history, in the context of the western aesthetic fashion known as Orientalism.The author of a Handbook for Travelers in Syria and Palestine in 1868 observed that the most beautiful mosques of Damascus were "like Mohammedanism itself, now rapidly decaying" and relics of "the golden age of Islam".
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J. E. Millais: The Return of the Dove to the Ark (1851). According to the biblical story (Genesis 8:11), a dove was released by Noah after the Flood in order to find land; it came back carrying a freshly plucked olive leaf (Hebrew: עלה זית alay zayit), [7] a sign of life after the Flood and of God's bringing Noah, his family and the animals to land.
Umayyad gold dinar minted at Damascus, Syria in AH 77 (697 CE) having a weight of 4.24 grams Gold Dinar of the 20th Abbasid Caliph Ar-Radi bi'llah (934–940 CE) Dinar issued during the reign of the Fatimid emir Al-Mu'izz li-Din Allah in Mansouria, Tunisia in 344 AH (955 CE) Dinar Mamluq sultan Baybars (658–676 AH (1260–1277 CE)