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Defining to be the mass fraction of water vapor in the air parcel, the parcel's specific gas constant and the specific heat capacity at constant volume are = + and = +, respectively. Defining the lifting deposition level (LDL) as the height at which the air parcel becomes saturated with respect to ice , the analogous expression for the LDL is:
Also actiniform. Describing a collection of low-lying, radially structured clouds with distinct shapes (resembling leaves or wheels in satellite imagery), and typically organized in extensive mesoscale fields over marine environments. They are closely related to and sometimes considered a variant of stratocumulus clouds. actinometer A scientific instrument used to measure the heating power of ...
Another relevant factor is that the height of the tropopause varies with latitude—at the tropics it is around 16–17 km above sea level but descends to 10–11 km at high latitudes. In general terms, an explosive eruption requires a greater intensity (magma discharge rate) to cross the tropopause in the tropics than at mid to polar latitudes.
The five components of the climate system all interact. They are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere. [1]: 1451 Earth's climate system is a complex system with five interacting components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things).
Precipitation can be divided into three categories, based on whether it falls as liquid water, liquid water that freezes on contact with the surface, or ice. Mixtures of different types of precipitation, including types in different categories, can fall simultaneously. Liquid forms of precipitation include rain and drizzle.
Rate of transpiration can be influenced by factors including plant type, soil type, weather conditions and water content, and also cultivation practices. [6]: Ch. 1, "Transpiration" Evapotranspiration is typically measured in millimeters of water (i.e. volume of water moved per unit area of the Earth's surface) in a set unit of time. [6]:
Water vapor can be produced from the evaporation or boiling of liquid water or from the sublimation of ice. Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere. [1] Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by condensation.
Snow loads are related to the climate in which a structure is sited. Icings are usually a result of the building or structure generating heat that melts the snow that is on it. Snow loads – The Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures gives guidance on how to translate the following factors into roof snow loads: [86] Ground ...