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where is the ratio of the rate of the substituted reaction compared to the reference reaction, ρ* is the sensitivity factor for the reaction to polar effects, σ* is the polar substituent constant that describes the field and inductive effects of the substituent, δ is the sensitivity factor for the reaction to steric effects, and E s is ...
The power factor in a single-phase circuit (or balanced three-phase circuit) can be measured with the wattmeter-ammeter-voltmeter method, where the power in watts is divided by the product of measured voltage and current. The power factor of a balanced polyphase circuit is the same as that of any phase. The power factor of an unbalanced ...
Power factor correcting capacitors can be added externally to neutralize a constant amount of the variable reactive excitation current. After starting, an induction generator can use a capacitor bank to produce reactive excitation current, but the isolated power system's voltage and frequency are not self-regulating and destabilize readily.
Angle notation can easily describe leading and lagging current: . [1] In this equation, the value of theta is the important factor for leading and lagging current. As mentioned in the introduction above, leading or lagging current represents a time shift between the current and voltage sine curves, which is represented by the angle by which the curve is ahead or behind of where it would be ...
RNA folding problem: Is it possible to accurately predict the secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of a polyribonucleic acid sequence based on its sequence and environment? Protein design : Is it possible to design highly active enzymes de novo for any desired reaction?
In organic chemistry, steric effects are nearly universal and affect the rates and activation energies of most chemical reactions to varying degrees. In biochemistry, steric effects are often exploited in naturally occurring molecules such as enzymes , where the catalytic site may be buried within a large protein structure.
In physical organic chemistry, a kinetic isotope effect (KIE) is the change in the reaction rate of a chemical reaction when one of the atoms in the reactants is replaced by one of its isotopes. [3] Formally, it is the ratio of rate constants for the reactions involving the light ( k L ) and the heavy ( k H ) isotopically substituted reactants ...
The effect of the sigma electron displacement towards the more electronegative atom by which one end becomes positively charged and the other end negatively charged is known as the inductive effect. The -I effect is a permanent effect & generally represented by an arrow on the bond. [citation needed]