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  2. Atmospheric refraction - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction

    Diagram showing displacement of the Sun's image at sunrise and sunset Comparison of inferior and superior mirages due to differing air refractive indices, n. Atmospheric refraction is the deviation of light or other electromagnetic wave from a straight line as it passes through the atmosphere due to the variation in air density as a function of height. [1]

  3. Levelling refraction - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelling_refraction

    Levelling refraction refers to the systematic refraction effect distorting the results of line levelling over the Earth's surface. In line levelling, short segments of a line are levelled by taking readings through a level from two staffs, one fore and one behind. By chaining together the height differences of these segments, one can compute ...

  4. Solar zenith angle - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_zenith_angle

    The calculated values are approximations due to the distinction between common/geodetic latitude and geocentric latitude. However, the two values differ by less than 12 minutes of arc, which is less than the apparent angular radius of the sun. The formula also neglects the effect of atmospheric refraction. [5]

  5. Thomas A. Herring - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Herring

    "Modelling atmospheric delays in the analysis of space geodetic data" (PDF). In De Munck, J. C.; Spoelstra, T. A. Th. (eds.). Proceedings of Refraction of Transatmospheric Signals in Geodesy. Vol. 36. Netherlands Geodetic Commission Publications on Geodesy. pp. 157– 164. (invited lecture)

  6. Geodesic - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesic

    Klein quartic with 28 geodesics (marked by 7 colors and 4 patterns). In geometry, a geodesic (/ ˌ dʒ iː. ə ˈ d ɛ s ɪ k,-oʊ-,-ˈ d iː s ɪ k,-z ɪ k /) [1] [2] is a curve representing in some sense the locally [a] shortest [b] path between two points in a surface, or more generally in a Riemannian manifold.

  7. Geodesics in general relativity - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geodesics_in_general...

    In general relativity, a geodesic generalizes the notion of a "straight line" to curved spacetime.Importantly, the world line of a particle free from all external, non-gravitational forces is a particular type of geodesic.

  8. Levelling - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levelling

    A wooden tripod holding an optical level is set up firmly on the ground. Levelling or leveling (American English; see spelling differences) is a branch of surveying, the object of which is to establish or verify or measure the height of specified points relative to a datum.

  9. Geophysical survey - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysical_survey

    Seismic methods, such as reflection seismology, seismic refraction, and seismic tomography. This type of survey is carried out to discover the detailed structure of the rock formations beneath the surface of the Earth. Seismoelectrical method; Geodesy and gravity techniques, including gravimetry and gravity gradiometry. This type of survey is ...