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Four motor symptoms are considered cardinal signs in PD: slowness of movement (bradykinesia), tremor, rigidity, and postural instability. [1] Typical for PD is an initial asymmetric distribution of these symptoms, where in the course of the disease, a gradual progression to bilateral symptoms develops, although some asymmetry usually persists.
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome characterized by tremor, bradykinesia (slowed movements), rigidity, and postural instability. [1] [2] Both hypokinetic (bradykinesia and akinesia) as well as hyperkinetic (cogwheel rigidity and tremors at rest) features are displayed by Parkinsonism. [3]
Bradyphrenia is the slowness of thought common to many disorders of the brain. [1] Disorders characterized by bradyphrenia include Parkinson's disease and forms of schizophrenia consequently causing a delayed response and fatigue. [2]
Parkinson-plus syndromes (PPS) are a group of neurodegenerative [1] diseases featuring the classical features of Parkinson's disease (tremor, rigidity, akinesia/bradykinesia, and postural instability) with additional features that distinguish them from simple idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD).
Since this system regulates posture and skeletal muscle tone, a result is the characteristic bradykinesia of Parkinson's. Tardive dyskinesia : involuntary muscle movements in the lower face and distal extremities; this can be a chronic condition associated with long-term use of antipsychotics.
Hypokinetic movement disorders fall into one of four subcategories: akinesia (lack of movement), hypokinesia (reduced amplitude of movements), bradykinesia (slow movement), and rigidity. In primary movement disorders, the abnormal movement is the primary manifestation of the disorder.
The four cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson's—bradykinesia (slowed movements), postural instability, rigidity, and tremor—are called parkinsonism. [9] [10] These four symptoms are not exclusive to Parkinson's and can occur in many other conditions, [11] [12] including HIV infection and recreational drug use.
The CBGTC loop has been implicated in many diseases. For example, in Parkinson's disease, degeneration of dopaminergic neurons leading to decreased activity of the excitatory pathway is thought to result in hypokinesia, [15] and in Huntington's disease, degeneration of GABAergic neurons driving the inhibitory pathway is thought to result in the jerky body movements. [2]