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Python supports most object oriented programming (OOP) techniques. It allows polymorphism, not only within a class hierarchy but also by duck typing. Any object can be used for any type, and it will work so long as it has the proper methods and attributes. And everything in Python is an object, including classes, functions, numbers and modules.
The nested function technology allows a programmer to write source code that includes beneficial attributes such as information hiding, encapsulation and decomposition.The programmer can divide a task into subtasks which are only meaningful within the context of the task such that the subtask functions are hidden from callers that are not designed to use them.
Inner classes became a feature of the Java programming language starting with version 1.1. Nested classes are also a feature of the D programming language, Visual Basic .NET, Ruby, C++ and C#. In Python, it is possible to nest a class within another class, method or function.
When a function is attached as a property of an object and called as a method of that object (e.g. obj.f(x)), this will refer to the object that the function is contained within. [14] [15] It is even possible to manually specify this when calling a function, by using the .call() or .apply() methods of the function object. [16]
/*Ruby has three member variable types: class, class instance, and instance. */ class Dog # The class variable is defined within the class body with two at-signs # and describes data about all Dogs *and* their derived Dog breeds (if any) @@sniffs = true end mutt = Dog. new mutt. class. sniffs #=> true class Poodle < Dog # The "class instance variable" is defined within the class body with a ...
Functional languages generally support first-class functions, which can be passed as callbacks to other functions, stored as data or returned from functions. Many languages, including Perl, Python, Ruby , Smalltalk , C++ (11+), C# and VB.NET (new versions) and most functional languages, support lambda expressions , unnamed functions with inline ...
This depends on the actual class of the object, not the class of the reference to it (Cat). The class cannot generally be determined statically (that is, at compile time), so neither can the compiler decide which function to call at that time. The call must be dispatched to the right function dynamically (that is, at run time) instead.
The method Print in class Box, by invoking the parent version of method Print, is also able to output the private variables length and width of the base class. Otherwise, these variables are inaccessible to Box. The following statements will instantiate objects of type Rectangle and Box, and call their respective Print methods: