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Sometimes values are reported without the normalizing denominator, for example 0.067 = 1.73/26 for English; such values may be called κ p ("kappa-plaintext") rather than IC, with κ r ("kappa-random") used to denote the denominator 1/c (which is the expected coincidence rate for a uniform distribution of the same alphabet, 0.0385=1/26 for ...
The title refers to the French, British and Polish teams which worked on breaking the Enigma cipher, known by shorthand as "X", "Y" and "Z", respectively. The Enigma cipher, produced by the Enigma machine, was used from the 1920s to the end of World War II by Germany—later Nazi Germany—for military and other high security communications.
Denser stars with higher surface gravity exhibit greater pressure broadening of spectral lines. The gravity, and hence the pressure, on the surface of a giant star is much lower than for a dwarf star because the radius of the giant is much greater than a dwarf of similar mass
Alpha Kappa Alpha members can join the organization either as an undergraduate student or become a part of a graduate chapter if they’ve already earned a bachelor’s or an advanced degree from ...
The font used in the TeX rendering is an italic style. This is in line with the convention that variables should be italicized. As Greek letters are more often than not used as variables in mathematical formulas, a Greek letter appearing similar to the TeX rendering is more likely to be encountered in works involving mathematics.
The official description of Aciman’s novel states that it charts the love life of a bisexual man named Paul from early adolescence to adulthood as he finds romance and heartache in places like ...
Lindsay added, “So they have the ‘alpha’ which is the most successful, the best looking and then they have ‘sigma’ which is the same thing as an alpha but humbler.”
Apart from some less-than-ideal inherent characteristics of the Enigma, in practice the system's greatest weakness was the large numbers of messages and some ways that Enigma was used. The basic principle of this sort of enciphering machine is that it should deliver a stream of transformations that are difficult for a cryptanalyst to predict.