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  2. Word-initial ff - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word-initial_ff

    The English legal handwriting of the Middle Ages has no capital F. A double f (ff) was used to represent the capital letter. In transcribing, I should write F, not ff; e. g. Fiske, not ffiske. The replacement of manuscript word-initial ff by F is now a scholarly convention. [3] Usage in names such as Charles ffoulkes and Richard ffrench ...

  3. English orthography - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_orthography

    As a result, there is a somewhat regular system of pronouncing "foreign" words in English, [citation needed] and some borrowed words have had their spelling changed to conform to this system. For example, Hindu used to be spelled Hindoo , and the name Maria used to be pronounced like the name Mariah , but was changed to conform to this system.

  4. List of writing systems - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_writing_systems

    Writing systems are used to record human language, and may be classified according to certain common features.. The usual name of the script is given first; the name of the languages in which the script is written follows (in brackets), particularly in the case where the language name differs from the script name.

  5. Letter frequency - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letter_frequency

    The California Job Case was a compartmentalized box for printing in the 19th century, sizes corresponding to the commonality of letters. The frequency of letters in text has been studied for use in cryptanalysis, and frequency analysis in particular, dating back to the Arab mathematician al-Kindi (c. AD 801–873 ), who formally developed the method (the ciphers breakable by this technique go ...

  6. Gregg shorthand - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregg_shorthand

    Gregg shorthand is a system of phonography, or a phonemic writing system, which means it records the sounds of the speaker, not the English spelling. [4] For example, it uses the f stroke for the / f / sound in funnel, telephone, and laugh, [8] and omits all silent letters. [4] The system is written from left to right and the letters are joined.

  7. International Phonetic Alphabet chart - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic...

    The following is the chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet, a standardized system of phonetic symbols devised and maintained by the International Phonetic Association. It is not a complete list of all possible speech sounds in the world's languages, only those about which stand-alone articles exist in this encyclopedia.

  8. International Phonetic Alphabet - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic...

    It was devised by the International Phonetic Association in the late 19th century as a standard written representation for the sounds of speech. [1] The IPA is used by lexicographers , foreign language students and teachers, linguists , speech–language pathologists , singers, actors, constructed language creators, and translators .

  9. Middle English phonology - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English_phonology

    (In the standard dialect of Middle English, the sounds became /i/ and /iː/; in Kentish, they became /e/ and /eː/.) /yː/ may have existed in learned speech in loanwords from Old French, also spelled u , but, as it merged with /iw/, becoming /juː/ in Modern English, rather than /iː/, it can be assumed that /iw/ was the vernacular ...