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Row 3. Values of the five parameters for the first C p equation; temperature limit for the equation. Row 4. Values of the five parameters for the second C p equation; temperature limit for the equation. Row 5. Values of the five parameters for the third C p equation; temperature limit for the equation. Row 6. Number of H T - H 298 equations ...
Given that the Troyon limit suggested a around 2.5 to 4%, and a practical reactor had to have a around 5%, the Troyon limit was a serious concern when it was introduced. However, it was found that β N {\displaystyle \beta _{N}} changed dramatically with the shape of the plasma, and non-circular systems would have much better performance.
When the particles have an arbitrary spin (any number of spin states), the formula is a bit more complicated. At low magnetic fields or high temperature, the spin follows Curie's law, with [ 3 ] C = μ 0 μ B 2 3 k B n g 2 J ( J + 1 ) , {\displaystyle C={\frac {\mu _{0}\mu _{\text{B}}^{2}}{3k_{\rm {B}}}}ng^{2}J(J+1),}
The existence of a greater number of particles that move slower than the wave phase velocity as compared with those that move faster, leads to an energy transfer from the wave to the particles. In the case of the two-stream instability , when an electron stream is injected to the plasma, the particles' velocity distribution function has a "bump ...
Above the Curie temperature, the atoms are excited, and the spin orientations become randomized [9] but can be realigned by an applied field, i.e., the material becomes paramagnetic. Below the Curie temperature, the intrinsic structure has undergone a phase transition, [16] the atoms are ordered, and the material is ferromagnetic. [12]
With the numbers q ~ 2, and Φ co and τ co increasing with geomagnetic activity (e.g., Φ co ~ 17 and 65 kVolt, and τ co ~ 0 and 1 h, during geomagnetically quiet and slightly disturbed conditions, respectively), eq. valid at lower latitudes, (θ > θ m) and within the inner magnetosphere (r ≤ 10 a) is the Volland-Stern model (see Fig. 1 a)).
Schematic of the Birkeland or Field-Aligned Currents and the ionospheric current systems they connect to, Pedersen and Hall currents. [1]A Birkeland current (also known as field-aligned current, FAC) is a set of electrical currents that flow along geomagnetic field lines connecting the Earth's magnetosphere to the Earth's high latitude ionosphere.
Magnetic reconnection is a breakdown of "ideal-magnetohydrodynamics" and so of "Alfvén's theorem" (also called the "frozen-in flux theorem") which applies to large-scale regions of a highly-conducting magnetoplasma, for which the Magnetic Reynolds Number is very large: this makes the convective term in the induction equation dominate in such regions.