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Big O notation is a mathematical notation that describes the limiting behavior of a function when the argument tends towards a particular value or infinity. Big O is a member of a family of notations invented by German mathematicians Paul Bachmann, [1] Edmund Landau, [2] and others, collectively called Bachmann–Landau notation or asymptotic notation.
Graphs of functions commonly used in the analysis of algorithms, showing the number of operations versus input size for each function. The following tables list the computational complexity of various algorithms for common mathematical operations.
The following list includes the continued fractions of some constants and is sorted by their representations. Continued fractions with more than 20 known terms have been truncated, with an ellipsis to show that they continue. Rational numbers have two continued fractions; the version in this list is the shorter one.
For example, bubble sort and timsort are both algorithms to sort a list of items from smallest to largest. Bubble sort organizes the list in time proportional to the number of elements squared ( O ( n 2 ) {\textstyle O(n^{2})} , see Big O notation ), but only requires a small amount of extra memory which is constant with respect to the length ...
A sorting algorithm is stable if whenever there are two records R and S with the same key, and R appears before S in the original list, then R will always appear before S in the sorted list. When equal elements are indistinguishable, such as with integers, or more generally, any data where the entire element is the key, stability is not an issue.
Python's standard library includes heapq.nsmallest and heapq.nlargest functions for returning the smallest or largest elements from a collection, in sorted order. The implementation maintains a binary heap , limited to holding k {\displaystyle k} elements, and initialized to the first k {\displaystyle k} elements in the collection.
those of cubefree order at most 50000 (395 703 groups); those of squarefree order; those of order p n for n at most 6 and p prime; those of order p 7 for p = 3, 5, 7, 11 (907 489 groups); those of order pq n where q n divides 2 8, 3 6, 5 5 or 7 4 and p is an arbitrary prime which differs from q; those whose orders factorise into at most 3 ...
In number theory, given a positive integer n and an integer a coprime to n, the multiplicative order of a modulo n is the smallest positive integer k such that (). [ 1 ] In other words, the multiplicative order of a modulo n is the order of a in the multiplicative group of the units in the ring of the integers modulo n .