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Later research on short-term memory and working memory revealed that memory span is not a constant even when measured in a number of chunks. The number of chunks a human can recall immediately after presentation depends on the category of chunks used (e.g., span is around seven for digits, around six for letters, and around five for words), and even on features of the chunks within a category.
Miller was born on February 3, 1920, in Charleston, West Virginia, the son of George E. Miller, a steel company executive [1] and Florence (née Armitage) Miller. [3] Soon after his birth, his parents divorced, and he lived with his mother during the Great Depression, attending public school and graduating from Charleston High School in 1937.
The effects of stress on memory include interference with a person's capacity to encode memory and the ability to retrieve information. [1] [2] Stimuli, like stress, improved memory when it was related to learning the subject. [3] During times of stress, the body reacts by secreting stress hormones into the bloodstream.
Learning and memory go hand-in-hand, as one cannot occur without the other. Learning involves experiences and how they alter the brain, while memory focuses on how those changes in the brain are stored and recalled. [3] Lower socioeconomic status environments yield lower cognitive and intellectual development in children. [2]
Some memory issues are due to stress, anxiety, or depression. A traumatic life event, such as the death of a spouse, can lead to changes in lifestyle and can leave an elderly person feeling unsure of themselves, sad, and lonely. Dealing with such drastic life changes can therefore leave some people confused or forgetful.
Deficiency in destination memory is more common among older adults, but has been reported by university students as well. [44] Destination memory is notoriously poor due to ineffective integration of components of episodic memory. [44] However, there appear to be few, if any, negative social implications for poor destination memory.
Trauma and stress experienced by a parent can cause epigenetic changes to its offspring. This has been observed both in population and experimental studies. [20] Biological vulnerability and HPA axis alterations may be observed after maternal epigenetic programing during pregnancy, leading to similar modifications in future generations. [21]
[citation needed] The elderly, students, and children experience different, and more often higher, amounts of cognitive load. [ citation needed ] The fundamental tenet of cognitive load theory is that the quality of instructional design will be raised if greater consideration is given to the role and limitations of working memory.