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It plays a role in a variety of homeostatic functions related to basic survival needs, such as taste, visceral sensation, and autonomic control. The insula controls autonomic functions through the regulation of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. [55] [56] It has a role in regulating the immune system. [57] [58] [59]
The respiratory system (also respiratory apparatus, ventilatory system) is a biological system consisting of specific organs and structures used for gas exchange in animals and plants. The anatomy and physiology that make this happen varies greatly, depending on the size of the organism, the environment in which it lives and its evolutionary ...
The insula is considered to be a "hub" region because it has an extremely high number of connections with other brain areas, suggesting it may be important for an integration of lower-level physiological information and salience. [52] The insula connects to many regions in the brain and is highly involved in many homeostatic functions.
Airway basal cells are found deep in the respiratory epithelium, attached to, and lining the basement membrane. [1]Basal cells are the stem cells or progenitors of the airway epithelium and can differentiate to replenish all of the epithelial cells including the ciliated cells, and secretory goblet cells.
The lower respiratory tract is part of the respiratory system, and consists of the trachea and the structures below this including the lungs. [32] The trachea receives air from the pharynx and travels down to a place where it splits (the carina) into a right and left primary bronchus.
The cells in the respiratory epithelium are of five main types: a) ciliated cells, b) goblet cells, c) brush cells, d) airway basal cells, and e) small granule cells (NDES) [6] Goblet cells become increasingly fewer further down the respiratory tree until they are absent in the terminal bronchioles; club cells take over their role to some extent here. [7]
Dorsal respiratory group – in the medulla; Ventral respiratory group – in the medulla; Pneumotaxic center – various nuclei of the pons; Apneustic center – nucleus of the pons; From the respiratory center, the muscles of respiration, in particular the diaphragm, [4] are activated to cause air to move in and out of the lungs.
The respiratory rate is set in the respiratory center by the dorsal respiratory group, in the medulla, and these neurons are mostly concentrated in the solitary nucleus that extends the length of the medulla. [4] The basic rhythm of respiration is that of quiet, restful breathing known as eupnea.