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The work done is given by the dot product of the two vectors, where the result is a scalar. When the force F is constant and the angle θ between the force and the displacement s is also constant, then the work done is given by: = If the force is variable, then work is given by the line integral:
A Carnot cycle is an ideal thermodynamic cycle proposed by French physicist Sadi Carnot in 1824 and expanded upon by others in the 1830s and 1840s. By Carnot's theorem, it provides an upper limit on the efficiency of any classical thermodynamic engine during the conversion of heat into work, or conversely, the efficiency of a refrigeration system in creating a temperature difference through ...
The maximum work is thus regarded as the diminution of the free, or available, energy of the system (Gibbs free energy G at T = constant, P = constant or Helmholtz free energy F at T = constant, V = constant), whilst the heat given out is usually a measure of the diminution of the total energy of the system (internal energy).
Thermodynamic work is one of the principal kinds of process by which a thermodynamic system can interact with and transfer energy to its surroundings. This results in externally measurable macroscopic forces on the system's surroundings, which can cause mechanical work, to lift a weight, for example, [1] or cause changes in electromagnetic, [2] [3] [4] or gravitational [5] variables.
If the system has such rigid walls that pressure–volume work cannot be done, but the walls are adiabatic (Q = 0), and energy is added as isochoric (constant volume) work in the form of friction or the stirring of a viscous fluid within the system (W < 0), and there is no phase change, then the temperature of the system will rise.
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Then the particle is moved around by other forces, and eventually ends up at A again. Though the particle may still be moving, at that instant when it passes point A again, it has traveled a closed path. If the net work done by F at this point is 0, then F passes the closed path test. Any force that passes the closed path test for all possible ...
Work: W: Transferred energy joule (J) L 2 M T −2: scalar Young's modulus: E: Ratio of stress to strain pascal (Pa = N/m 2) L −1 M T −2: scalar; assumes isotropic linear material spring constant: k: k is the torsional constant (measured in N·m/radian), which characterizes the stiffness of the torsional spring or the resistance to angular ...