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The initial position, demonstrator, is generally enrolled as the top student of the class. Master's degree is required for university-level assistant lecturer. After PhD, the appointment starts with lecturer, then gradually associate professor and professor, depending on research/teaching experience.
The following summarizes basic academic ranks in the French higher education system. Most academic institutions are state-run and most academics with permanent positions are civil servants, and thus are tenured (after a one-year probationary period). Several parallel career paths exist, depending on the type of institution.
This is a list of countries by the number of PhD degrees awarded in 2014 as per data available with the OECD. [1] * indicates "Research in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" or "Universities in COUNTRY or TERRITORY" links.
Administrative ranks. Rektor, Präsident – rector or president, highest representative of the university or Polytechnic, elected. Prorektor, Konrektor, Vizepräsident – prorector or vice president, responsible for a certain field, elected. Kanzler – chancellor, administrative head, elected, longterm or even permanent position.
In France, the Doctor of Sciences degree (doctorat ès sciences also called doctorat d'État) was a higher doctorate in the fields of experimental and natural sciences, superseded in 1984 by the habilitation. In Denmark, Dr Scient. is a higher doctorate. In Bulgaria, "Doctor" (PhD) is the highest education level and first science degree.
The academic terminology for titles and positions at universities in Sweden includes the following: Adjunkt – A university teaching position, often part-time, that requires at least a bachelor's degree but does not require a PhD; similar to the adjunct instructor and in some cases to assistant professor in the USA, lecturer in the UK.
Habilitation. Habilitation is the highest university degree, or the procedure by which it is achieved, in Germany, France, Italy and some other European and non-English-speaking countries. The candidate fulfills a university's set criteria of excellence in research, teaching, and further education, which usually includes a dissertation.
These difficulties are increasingly being felt by graduates of professional degrees, such as law school, looking to find employment. PhD students may need to take on debt to undertake their degree. [48] [49] A PhD is also required in some positions outside academia, such as research jobs in major international agencies.