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Congener descriptors give a shorthand notation for geometry and substituent positions. The twelve congeners that display all four of the descriptors are referred to as being "dioxin-like", referring both to their toxicity and structural features which make them similar to 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2378-TCDD). [1]
The coplanar group members have a fairly rigid structure, with their two phenyl rings in the same plane. It renders their structure similar to polychlorinated dibenzo- p -dioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans , and allows them to act like PCDDs, as an agonist of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in organisms.
Exposure to the coplanar stereoisomer 3,3',4,4',5,5'-hexabromobiphenyl (but not the non-coplanar stereoisomer) in genetically susceptible mice is known to cause immunotoxicity and disorders related to the central nervous system, and even at doses as low as 2.5 mg/kg, excess neonatal fatalities are observed (LD 50 is from 5–10 mg/kg). [1]
For example, butane has three conformers relating to its two methyl (CH 3) groups: two gauche conformers, which have the methyls ±60° apart and are enantiomeric, and an anti conformer, where the four carbon centres are coplanar and the substituents are 180° apart (refer to free energy diagram of butane).
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Via fences use up a lot of valuable substrate real estate and so will increase the overall size of the assembly. Via fences too close to the line being guarded can degrade the isolation otherwise achievable. In stripline, a rule of thumb is to place the fences at least four times the trace to groundplane distance away from the line being ...
A drawing meant to depict the physical arrangement of the wires and the components they connect is called artwork or layout, physical design, or wiring diagram. Circuit diagrams are used for the design ( circuit design ), construction (such as PCB layout), and maintenance of electrical and electronic equipment.
A via (Latin, 'path' or 'way') is an electrical connection between two or more metal layers of a printed circuit boards (PCB) or integrated circuit. Essentially a via is a small drilled hole that goes through two or more adjacent layers; the hole is plated with metal (often copper) that forms an electrical connection through the insulating layers.