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Rolling resistance, sometimes called rolling friction or rolling drag, is the force resisting the motion when a body (such as a ball, tire, or wheel) rolls on a surface. It is mainly caused by non-elastic effects; that is, not all the energy needed for deformation (or movement) of the wheel, roadbed, etc., is recovered when the pressure is removed.
The van der Pauw Method is a technique commonly used to measure the resistivity and the Hall coefficient of a sample. Its strength lies in its ability to accurately measure the properties of a sample of any arbitrary shape, as long as the sample is approximately two-dimensional (i.e. it is much thinner than it is wide), solid (no holes), and the electrodes are placed on its perimeter.
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In a rolled metal, for example, the directions in the material are the rolling direction, transverse direction and rolling plane normal. If a large number of crystals are involved, then it is typical to make a contour plot , rather than plotting individual poles.
Vehicle dynamics is the study of vehicle motion, e.g., how a vehicle's forward movement changes in response to driver inputs, propulsion system outputs, ambient conditions, air/surface/water conditions, etc. Vehicle dynamics is a part of engineering primarily based on classical mechanics.
Texture is seen in almost all engineered materials, and can have a great influence on materials properties. The texture forms in materials during thermo-mechanical processes, for example during production processes e.g. rolling. Consequently, the rolling process is often followed by a heat treatment to reduce the amount of unwanted texture.
Braking distance refers to the distance a vehicle will travel from the point when its brakes are fully applied to when it comes to a complete stop. It is primarily affected by the original speed of the vehicle and the coefficient of friction between the tires and the road surface, [Note 1] and negligibly by the tires' rolling resistance and vehicle's air drag.
For example, in the USSR, the standard formula is Wr (curve resistance in parts per thousand or kgf/tonne) = 700/R where R is the radius of the curve in meters. Other countries often use the same formula, but with a different numerator-constant. For example, the US used 446/R, Italy 800/R, England 600/R, China 573/R, etc.