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Three cleavage-based voting factors, or individual differences impacting voting behavior, focused on in existing research are religion, class, and gender. [12] In recent years, voting cleavage has shifted from concerns of Protestant vs Catholic religions to have a larger focus on religious vs non-religious leanings. [12]
Some abnormal behaviours may be related to environmental conditions (e.g. captive housing) whereas others may be due to medical conditions. The list does not include behaviours in animals that are genetically modified to express abnormal behaviour (e.g. reeler mice). A polar bear performing stereotyped pacing.
Environmental enrichment can improve the overall welfare of animals in captivity and create a habitat similar to what they would experience in their wild environment. It aims to maintain an animal's physical and psychological health by increasing the range or number of species-specific behaviors, increasing positive interaction with the captive environment, preventing or reducing the frequency ...
Many behaviors that are commonly thought of as spiteful are actually better explained as being selfish, that is benefiting the actor and harming the recipient, and true spiteful behaviors are rare in the animal kingdom. An example of spite is the sterile soldiers of the polyembryonic parasitoid wasp. A female wasp lays a male and a female egg ...
Ethograms are used extensively in the study of welfare science. Ethograms can be used to detect the occurrence or prevalence of abnormal behaviours (e.g. stereotypies, [5] [6] feather pecking, [7] tail-biting [8]), normal behaviours (e.g. comfort behaviours), departures from the ethogram of ancestral species [9] and the behaviour of captive animals upon release into a natural environment.
The most common example of a spatial model is a political spectrum or compass, such as the traditional left-right axis, [2] but issue spaces can be more complex. For example, a study of German voters found at least four dimensions were required to adequately represent all political parties.
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As for critiques concerning voter behavior, it is argued that public choice cannot explain why people vote due to limitations in rational choice theory. [38] For example, from the viewpoint of rational choice theory , the expected gains of voting depend on (1) the benefit to the voter if their candidate wins and (2) the probability that one's ...