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Nitrous oxide was discovered between 1772 and 1793 and used for anesthesia in 1844. [3] It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. [4] It often comes as a 50/50 mixture with oxygen. [1] Devices with a demand valve are available for self-administration. [5] The setup and maintenance is relatively expensive for ...
The pregnancy category of a medication is an assessment of the risk of fetal injury due to the pharmaceutical, if it is used as directed by the mother during pregnancy. It does not include any risks conferred by pharmaceutical agents or their metabolites in breast milk .
Loperamide, sold under the brand name Imodium, among others, [1] is a medication of the opioid receptor agonist class used to decrease the frequency of diarrhea. [5] [4] It is often used for this purpose in irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, short bowel syndrome, [4] Crohn's disease, and ulcerative colitis. [5]
While its safety in early pregnancy is unclear, [8] it appears to be harmful in later pregnancy, so it is not recommended during that period. [11] Like other NSAIDs, it works by inhibiting the production of prostaglandins by decreasing the activity of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). [8] Ibuprofen is a weaker anti-inflammatory agent than other ...
As with other opioid analgesics, central nervous system effects (such as sedation, confusion, and dizziness) are considerations with butorphanol. Nausea and vomiting are common. Less common are the gastrointestinal effects of other opioids (mostly constipation). Another side effect experienced by people taking the medication is increased ...
By inhibiting the COX-3 enzyme in the CNS, metamizole reduces the production of prostaglandins, thereby alleviating pain, reducing fever, and potentially lessening inflammation. [14] [36] Activation of the endocannabinoid and opioidergic systems is also thought to play a role in analgesic effects of metamizole.
Ketoprofen is one of the propionic acid class of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID) with analgesic and antipyretic effects. [3] It acts by inhibiting the body's production of prostaglandin. It was patented in 1967 and approved for medical use in 1980. [4]
Bupivacaine crosses the placenta and is a pregnancy category C drug. However, it is approved for use at term in obstetrical anesthesia. Bupivacaine is excreted in breast milk. Risks of stopping breast feeding versus stopping bupivacaine should be discussed with the patient. [19]