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  2. Causal structure - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Causal_structure

    The chronological future of , denoted , as the set of all points in such that chronologically precedes : The chronological past of , denoted , as the set of all points in such that chronologically precedes : We similarly define. The causal future (also called the absolute future) of. x {\displaystyle x} , denoted.

  3. Probability density function - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_density_function

    In probability theory, a probability density function (PDF), density function, or density of an absolutely continuous random variable, is a function whose value at any given sample (or point) in the sample space (the set of possible values taken by the random variable) can be interpreted as providing a relative likelihood that the value of the ...

  4. Black–Scholes model - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black–Scholes_model

    The Black–Scholes / ˌblæk ˈʃoʊlz / [1] or Black–Scholes–Merton model is a mathematical model for the dynamics of a financial market containing derivative investment instruments. From the parabolic partial differential equation in the model, known as the Black–Scholes equation, one can deduce the Black–Scholes formula, which gives ...

  5. Present continuous - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_continuous

    The present continuous, also called the present progressive or present imperfect, is a verb form used in modern English that combines the present tense with the continuous aspect. [1] It is formed by the present tense form of be and the present participle of a verb. The present continuous is generally used to describe something that is taking ...

  6. Probability theory - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_theory

    Probability theory or probability calculus is the branch of mathematics concerned with probability. Although there are several different probability interpretations, probability theory treats the concept in a rigorous mathematical manner by expressing it through a set of axioms. Typically these axioms formalise probability in terms of a ...

  7. Probability distribution - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probability_distribution

    v. t. e. In probability theory and statistics, a probability distribution is the mathematical function that gives the probabilities of occurrence of possible outcomes for an experiment. [1][2] It is a mathematical description of a random phenomenon in terms of its sample space and the probabilities of events (subsets of the sample space).

  8. Markov chain - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Markov_chain

    Usually the term "Markov chain" is reserved for a process with a discrete set of times, that is, a discrete-time Markov chain (DTMC), [11] but a few authors use the term "Markov process" to refer to a continuous-time Markov chain (CTMC) without explicit mention.

  9. Exponential growth - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_growth

    Exponential growth is a process that increases quantity over time at an ever-increasing rate. It occurs when the instantaneous rate of change (that is, the derivative) of a quantity with respect to time is proportional to the quantity itself. Described as a function, a quantity undergoing exponential growth is an exponential function of time ...