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In reality, the Mongols likely spared most of Germany because their primary objective was to punish the Hungarian king for supporting the Cumans. The Mongols raided eastern Austria and southern Moravia again in December 1241 and January 1242. A century later in 1340 they raided the March of Brandenburg. Anti-Mongol crusades were preached within ...
The Mongols, instead of leaving the defenseless and helpless people and continuing their campaign through Pannonia to Western Europe, spent time securing and pacifying the occupied territories. On Christmas 1241, the costly siege of Esztergom destroyed the capital and economic center of the Kingdom of Hungary , forcing the capital to be moved ...
The Mongols (2nd ed. 2007) Rossabi, Morris. The Mongols: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2012) Saunders, J. J. The History of the Mongol Conquests (2001) excerpt and text search; Srodecki, Paul. Fighting the ‘Eastern Plague'. Anti-Mongol Crusade Ventures in the Thirteenth Century. In: The Expansion of the Faith.
The remainder of the Mongol army retreated to Cilician Armenia, where they were received and re-equipped by Hethum I. [43] Ain Jalut marked a major turning point in the history of the Mongols, as it was the first major battle that they had lost, and set the western border for what had seemed an unstoppable expansion of the Mongol Empire.
The Mongol Empire of the 13th and 14th centuries was the largest contiguous empire in history. [4] Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Europe, extending northward into parts of the Arctic; [5] eastward and southward into parts of the Indian subcontinent, mounted invasions of Southeast Asia, and ...
The Nizari Imam sought anti-Mongol alliances as far as China, France, and England: [6] in 1238, he and the Abbasid caliph Al-Mustansir sent a joint diplomatic mission to the European kings Louis IX of France and Edward I of England to forge a Muslim–Christian alliance against the Mongols, but this was unsuccessful.
In France, Enlightenment was based in the salons and culminated in the great Encyclopédie (1751–72). These new intellectual strains would spread to urban centres across Europe, notably England, Scotland, the German states, the Netherlands, Poland, Russia, Italy, Austria, and Spain, as well as Britain's American colonies.
The Mongols established a system of postal-relay horse stations called Örtöö, for the fast transfer of written messages. The Mongol mail system was the first such empire-wide service since the Roman Empire. Additionally, Mongol battlefield communication utilized signal flags and horns and to a lesser extent, signal arrows to communicate ...