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Bond length is the average distance between nuclei of two bonded atoms in a molecule. It depends on bond order, bond strength, orbital hybridization and electronic and steric effects. Learn about the general trends of bond lengths across the periodic table and in organic compounds.
Learn about the three-dimensional arrangement of atoms in a molecule, including bond lengths, bond angles, torsional angles and other geometrical parameters. Find out how molecular geometry is determined by spectroscopic methods, quantum chemistry methods and thermal excitation.
Covalent radius is a measure of the size of an atom that forms part of one covalent bond. It is usually measured in picometres or angstroms, and it depends on the chemical environment and bond order of the atom.
Learn how the periodic table shows patterns of atomic radius, ionization energy, electron affinity, electronegativity, valency and metallic character of elements. See the summary of trends across periods and groups, and the exceptions and variations for some elements.
Learn about the different types of chemical bonds, such as covalent, ionic and metallic, and how they are formed and described by quantum theory. Find out the properties and examples of molecules and substances that result from various bonding mechanisms.
Learn about the definition, measurement and trends of atomic radii, the distance from the nucleus to the outermost electron shell of an atom. Compare the values of atomic radii for different elements and their states in picometers and atomic units.
A ball-and-stick model is a molecular model of a chemical substance that shows the atoms and bonds in three dimensions. The web page explains the history, features and types of ball-and-stick models, and provides examples and references.
Learn how to draw Lewis structures, also called Lewis dot formulas, to show the bonding and lone pairs of electrons in molecules and ions. Find methods, examples, exceptions, and a table for calculating bonds and lone pairs.