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The eleven Confederate states in 1860 had 297 towns and cities with 835,000 people. Of these, 162 towns and cities with 681,000 people were at one point occupied by Union forces. Eleven were destroyed or severely damaged by war action, including Atlanta (with an 1860 population of 9,600), Charleston, Columbia, and Richmond (with prewar ...
Unlike other forms of municipalities in Pennsylvania, boroughs and towns are not classified according to population. Boroughs designated in the table below with a dagger (†) are home rule municipalities and are also found in the List of Pennsylvania municipalities and counties with home rule charters, optional charters, or optional plans. The ...
A representation by Robert Seymour of the cholera epidemic depicts the spread of the disease in the form of poisonous air.. The miasma theory was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory took hold towards the end of the 19th century; it is no longer accepted as a correct explanation for disease by the scientific community.
It was one of the first large-scale biological weapon trials that would be conducted under a "germ warfare testing program" that went on for 20 years, from 1949 to 1969.
Epidemics of the 19th century were faced without the medical advances that made 20th-century epidemics much rarer and less lethal. Micro-organisms (viruses and bacteria) had been discovered in the 18th century, but it was not until the late 19th century that the experiments of Lazzaro Spallanzani and Louis Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation conclusively, allowing germ theory and Robert ...
This began the path to germ specificity within the theory. [49] Louis Pasteur's contemporary Robert Koch devoted much of his scientific study to discovering certain pathogens and connecting them to specific diseases. These scientists were often in competition with one another and so the Koch-Pasteur rivalry is a well-known part of germ theory's ...
In contrast, the germ theory held that the principal cause of cholera was a germ cell that had not yet been identified. Snow theorised that this unknown germ was transmitted from person to person by individuals ingesting water. John Simon, a pathologist and London's lead medical officer, called Snow's germ theory "peculiar". [6]
Whilst John Snow's epidemiological maps were well recognized and led to the removal of the Broad Street pump handle (e.g., the 1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak), in 1874, scientific representatives from 21 countries voted unanimously to resolve that cholera was caused by environmental toxins from miasmata, or clouds of unhealthy substances ...