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The Y-chromosome is one of the 23rd pair of human chromosomes. Only males have a Y-chromosome, because women have two X chromosomes in their 23rd pair. A man's patrilineal ancestry, or male-line ancestry, can be traced using the DNA on his Y-chromosome (Y-DNA), because the Y-chromosome is transmitted from a father to son nearly unchanged. [31]
The system allows one to derive an ancestor's relationship based on their number. For example, 621 is the first child of 62, who is the second child of 6, who is the sixth child of his parents. In the Henry System, when there are more than nine children, X is used for the 10th child, A is used for the 11th child, B is used for the 12th child ...
Lorusso and Bacchini argue against the assumption that "self-identified race is a good proxy for a specific genetic ancestry" [6] on the basis that self-identified race is complex: it depends on a range of psychological, cultural and social factors, and is therefore "not a robust proxy for genetic ancestry". [113]
The African-American family structure has been divided into a twelve-part typology that is used to show the differences in the family structure based on "gender, marital status, and the presence or absence of children, other relatives or non-relatives." [32]
The identical ancestors point for Homo sapiens has been the subject of debate. In 2003 Rohde estimated it to be between 5000 and 15,000 years ago. [2] In 2004, Rohde, Olson and Chang showed through simulations that, given the false assumption of random mate choice without geographic barriers, the Identical Ancestors Point for all humans would be surprisingly recent, on the order of 5,000 ...
The time to the genealogical MRCA (most recent common ancestor by any line of descent) of all living humans cannot be traced genetically because the DNA of the great majority of ancestors is completely lost after a few hundred years. It is therefore computed based on non-genetic, mathematical models and computer simulations.
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A wide range of methods have been developed to assess the structure of human populations with the use of genetic data. Early studies of within and between-group genetic variation used physical phenotypes and blood groups, with modern genetic studies using genetic markers such as Alu sequences, short tandem repeat polymorphisms, and single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), among others. [11]