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In hydrodynamics, the free surface is defined mathematically by the free-surface condition, [11] that is, the material derivative on the pressure is zero: = In fluid dynamics , a free-surface vortex , also known as a potential vortex or whirlpool, forms in an irrotational flow, [ 12 ] for example when a bathtub is drained.
The ocean's surface is hit hard by anthropogenic change, and the surface ecosystem is likely already dramatically different from even a few hundred years ago. For example, prior to widespread damming, logging, and industrialisation, more wood may have entered the open ocean, [ 14 ] while plastic had not yet been invented.
The motions of the ocean surface, known as undulations or wind waves, are the partial and alternate rising and falling of the ocean surface. The series of mechanical waves that propagate along the interface between water and air is called swell – a term used in sailing , surfing and navigation . [ 72 ]
But the surface is also on the front line of climate change and pollution. Life on the ocean's surface connects worlds. From shallow waters to the deep sea, the open ocean to rivers and lakes, numerous terrestrial and marine species depend on the surface ecosystem and the organisms found there. [28] The ocean's surface acts like a skin between ...
The deep ocean is both cold and dark with generally weak velocities (although limited areas of the deep ocean are known to have significant recirculations). The deep ocean is supplied with water from the upper ocean in only a few limited geographical regions: the subpolar North Atlantic and several sinking regions around the Antarctic. Because ...
The rate of the ocean’s warming has more than quadrupled over the past four decades, according to researchers. While ocean temperatures were rising at about 0.06 degrees Celsius per decade in ...
Regional Ocean Modeling System (ROMS) is a free-surface, terrain-following, primitive equations ocean model widely used by the scientific community for a diverse range of applications. The model is developed and supported by researchers at the Rutgers University , University of California Los Angeles and contributors worldwide.
In 1962, the surface ship M.V. Spencer F. Baird recorded a maximum depth of 10,915 m (35,810 ft; 5,968 fathoms) using precision depth gauges. In 1984, the Japanese survey vessel Takuyō (拓洋) collected data from the Mariana Trench using a narrow, multi-beam echo sounder; it reported a maximum depth of 10,924 metres (35,840 ft), also reported ...