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Another contrast is between linear and non-linear models. Most early models of communication are linear models. They present communication as a unidirectional process in which messages flow from the communicator to the audience. Non-linear models, on the other hand, are multi-directional: messages are sent back and forth between participants.
Chronemics is the study of the use of time in nonverbal communication, though it carries implications for verbal communication as well. Time perceptions include punctuality, willingness to wait, and interactions. The use of time can affect lifestyles, daily agendas, speed of speech, movements, and how long people are willing to listen.
A model of communication is a simplified presentation that aims to give a basic explanation of the process by highlighting its most fundamental characteristics and components. [16] [8] [17] For example, James Watson and Anne Hill see Lasswell's model as a mere questioning device and not as a full model of communication. [10]
An example is the relation between sender and receiver: it influences the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants. Schramm's criticism of linear models of communication, which lack a feedback loop, has been very influential.
Barnlund's model has been criticized in various ways. For example, it has been argued that it is effective for face-to-face and small-group communication but not for reading and writing or for mass communication since the role of the specific environment is less pronounced in these cases. Another objection is that Barnlund's model fails to ...
[63] [64] [65] Communication can fail if the source does not address the needs of the receiver on the right level. For example, an employer may try to motivate the employees by encoding the message in terms of lower-level needs. This attempt may fail if the employees decode this message as being about higher-level needs.
A common objection is based on the fact that it is a linear transmission model: it conceptualizes communication as a one-way process going from a source to a destination. Against this approach, it is argued that communication is usually more interactive with messages and feedback going back and forth between the participants.
Time was almost ‘expanded’ in a way, as trading time was no longer limited to daylight hours, as one may be trading with someone in another time zone or even in a different hemisphere. According to James Carey the telegraph initiated communication changes, which reconfigured space and time. He argues this succinctly in Chapter 8 of his book.