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SQL includes operators and functions for calculating values on stored values. SQL allows the use of expressions in the select list to project data, as in the following example, which returns a list of books that cost more than 100.00 with an additional sales_tax column containing a sales tax figure calculated at 6% of the price.
Meanwhile, COALESCE simplifies the process of handling NULL values by returning the first non-NULL value in a given list of expressions, which is especially useful in scenarios where data might be incomplete or missing. Furthermore, SQL's support for three-valued logic (True, False, Unknown) introduces nuances when handling NULL values in ...
For example, JavaScript's loose equality rules can cause equality to be intransitive (i.e., a == b and b == c, but a != c), or make certain values be equal to their own negation. [ 2 ] A strict equality operator is also often available in those languages, returning true only for values with identical or equivalent types (in PHP, 4 === "4" is ...
To give an example, imagine a relational database for storing information about students, their address, the courses they take and their gender. Finding all male students and their addresses who attend a course that is also attended by a female student is expressed by the following conjunctive query: (student, address) . ∃ (student2, course) .
If multiple combinations are applied, parentheses can be used to group combinations to indicate the order of evaluation. Without parentheses, the AND operator has a stronger binding than OR. The following example deletes rows from mytable where the value of mycol is greater than 100, and the value of item is equal to the string literal 'Hammer':
The following example of a SELECT query returns a list of expensive books. The query retrieves all rows from the Book table in which the price column contains a value greater than 100.00. The result is sorted in ascending order by title. The asterisk (*) in the select list indicates that all columns of the Book table should be included in the ...
The basic relational building block is the domain (somewhat similar, but not equal to, a data type). A tuple is a finite sequence of attributes, which are ordered pairs of domains and values. A relation is a set of (compatible) tuples. Although these relational concepts are mathematically defined, those definitions map loosely to traditional ...
SQL was initially developed at IBM by Donald D. Chamberlin and Raymond F. Boyce after learning about the relational model from Edgar F. Codd [12] in the early 1970s. [13] This version, initially called SEQUEL (Structured English Query Language), was designed to manipulate and retrieve data stored in IBM's original quasirelational database management system, System R, which a group at IBM San ...