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Due in part to manufacturing improvements, such as tighter tolerances and better anti-corrosion coatings, in 2012 the typical car was estimated to last for 200,000 miles (320,000 km) [4] with the average car in 2024 lasting 160,545 miles according to the website Junk Car Reaper.
The concept of brake pads or disc brakes as an alternative to drum brakes had been around at least as early as a patent by F. W. Lanchester in 1902. [2] However, due to high cost and inefficiencies compared to drum brakes they were not commonly implemented until after World War II. [3]
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The dynamic friction coefficient "μ" for most standard brake pads is usually in the range of 0.35 to 0.42. This means that a force of 1000 Newtons on the pad will give a resulting brake force close to 400 Newtons. There are some racing pads that have a very high μ of 0.55 to 0.62 with excellent high-temperature behaviour.
An advantage of low-fade brakes such as disc brakes is steered wheels can do more braking without causing brake steer. [3] Brake fade typically occurs during heavy or sustained braking. Many high-speed vehicles use disc brakes, and many European heavy vehicles use disc brakes. [3]
The tram cars also had wheel brakes and track slipper brakes which could stop the tram should the electric braking systems fail. In several cases the tram car motors were shunt wound instead of series wound, and the systems on the Crystal Palace line utilized series-parallel controllers.
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