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  2. World Geographic Reference System - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_geographic_reference...

    Extensions to the above notation allow the GEOREF system to be used to designate an area around a reference point. This is achieved by adding an area designation to a base GEOREF co-ordinate. The area designation can be the letter S, to specify the sides of a rectangle (separated by the letter X); or the letter R, to specify the radius of a circle.

  3. Arc measurement - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc_measurement

    Arc measurement, [1] sometimes called degree measurement [2] (German: Gradmessung), [3] is the astrogeodetic technique of determining the radius of Earth and, by extension, its circumference.

  4. Geographical distance - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geographical_distance

    Geographical distance or geodetic distance is the distance measured along the surface of the Earth, or the shortest arch length.. The formulae in this article calculate distances between points which are defined by geographical coordinates in terms of latitude and longitude.

  5. Spherical coordinate system - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spherical_coordinate_system

    Once the radius is fixed, the three coordinates (r, θ, φ), known as a 3-tuple, provide a coordinate system on a sphere, typically called the spherical polar coordinates. The plane passing through the origin and perpendicular to the polar axis (where the polar angle is a right angle ) is called the reference plane (sometimes fundamental plane ).

  6. Earth radius - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth_radius

    Earth radius (denoted as R 🜨 or R E) is the distance from the center of Earth to a point on or near its surface. Approximating the figure of Earth by an Earth spheroid (an oblate ellipsoid), the radius ranges from a maximum (equatorial radius, denoted a) of nearly 6,378 km (3,963 mi) to a minimum (polar radius, denoted b) of nearly 6,357 km (3,950 mi).

  7. Polar coordinate system - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_coordinate_system

    Hipparchus. The concepts of angle and radius were already used by ancient peoples of the first millennium BC.The Greek astronomer and astrologer Hipparchus (190–120 BC) created a table of chord functions giving the length of the chord for each angle, and there are references to his using polar coordinates in establishing stellar positions. [2]

  8. Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Transverse...

    Each of the 60 zones uses a transverse Mercator projection that can map a region of large north-south extent with low distortion. By using narrow zones of 6° of longitude (up to 668 km) in width, and reducing the scale factor along the central meridian to 0.9996 (a reduction of 1:2500), the amount of distortion is held below 1 part in 1,000 ...

  9. Bearing (navigation) - Wikipedia

    en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearing_(navigation)

    Therefore, every forty-five degrees of direction from north on the compass was divided into four 'points'. Thus, 32 points of 11.25° each makes a circle of 360°. An object at 022.5° relative would be 'two points off the starboard bow', an object at 101.25° relative would be 'one point abaft the starboard beam' and an object at 213.75 ...