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Primary dystonia is suspected when the dystonia is the only sign and there is no identifiable cause or structural abnormality in the central nervous system. Researchers suspect it is caused by a pathology of the central nervous system , likely originating in those parts of the brain concerned with motor function—such as the basal ganglia and ...
The symptoms can be acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). They include movement dysfunction such as dystonia (continuous spasms and muscle contractions), akathisia (may manifest as motor restlessness), [ 1 ] parkinsonism characteristic symptoms such as rigidity , bradykinesia (slowness of movement), tremor , and tardive dyskinesia ...
If TD is present in the setting of a long-term drug therapy, reversibility can be determined primarily by severity of symptoms and how long symptoms have been present before the long-term drug has been stopped. Tardive dyskinesia occurs as a result of long-term use of dopamine-receptor-blocking medications such as antipsychotics and metoclopramide.
In those with dopamine-responsive dystonia, symptoms typically dramatically improve with low-dose administration of levodopa, which is a biochemically significant metabolite of the amino acid phenylalanine, as well as a biological precursor of the catecholamine dopamine, a neurotransmitter. (Neurotransmitters are naturally produced molecules ...
Levodopa-induced dyskinesia has long been thought to arise through pathological alterations in pre-synaptic and post-synaptic signal transduction in the nigrostriatal pathway (dorsal striatum). [9] It is thought that the stage of illness, dosage of l-DOPA, frequency of l-DOPA treatment and the youth of the patient at the onset of symptoms ...
Late-onset dyskinesia, also known as tardive dyskinesia, occurs after long-term treatment with an antipsychotic drug such as haloperidol (Haldol) or amoxapine (Asendin). The symptoms include tremors and writhing movements of the body and limbs, and abnormal movements in the face, mouth, and tongue – including involuntary lip smacking, repetitive pouting of the lips, and tongue protrusions.
In general, many oral drugs have low efficacy, unwanted side-effects and variable effects. [32] Oral baclofen and trihexyphenidyl are commonly used to decrease dystonia, although its efficacy is relatively low in most patients. Adverse effects of the latter can include worsening of choreoathetosis. [7]
Long term negative effects of the device include an increased risk of decreased mental function and dementia beyond that typically seen with neurodegenerative disorders. [citation needed] DBS is not considered to be a disease-modifying treatment, but rather one that improves symptoms. [citation needed]
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