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Post-eruptive loops in the wake of a solar flare, image taken by the TRACE satellite (photo by NASA). In solar physics, a solar particle event (SPE), also known as a solar energetic particle event or solar radiation storm, [a] [1] is a solar phenomenon which occurs when particles emitted by the Sun, mostly protons, become accelerated either in the Sun's atmosphere during a solar flare or in ...
Solar energetic particles (SEP), formerly known as solar cosmic rays, are high-energy, charged particles originating in the solar atmosphere and solar wind. They consist of protons , electrons and heavy ions with energies ranging from a few tens of keV to many GeV .
Earth formed around 4.54 billion years ago [2] [3] [4] by accretion from the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial atmosphere, which contained almost no oxygen and would have been toxic to humans and most modern life. Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other bodies which led to extreme ...
Solar particles interact with Earth's magnetosphere. Sizes not to scale. A solar proton event (SPE), or "proton storm", occurs when particles (mostly protons) emitted by the Sun become accelerated either close to the Sun during a flare or in interplanetary space by CME shocks. The events can include other nuclei such as helium ions and HZE ions ...
The frequency of ejections depends on the phase of the solar cycle: from about 0.2 per day near the solar minimum to 3.5 per day near the solar maximum. [37] However, the peak CME occurrence rate is often 6–12 months after sunspot number reaches its maximum.
The solar wind is guided by the Sun's magnetic field and hence largely emanates from the polar regions of the Sun; the induced spiral shape of the field causes a drag torque on the poles due to the magnetic tension force. During solar maximum the entire magnetic field of the Sun flips, thus alternating the polarity of the field every solar ...
Beyond the belts, they face additional hazards from cosmic rays and solar particle events. A region between the inner and outer Van Allen belts lies at 2 to 4 Earth radii and is sometimes referred to as the "safe zone". [40] [41] Solar cells, integrated circuits, and sensors can be damaged by radiation.
A propagation effect is anything that impacts the path or state of an electromagnetic wave after it is produced. These effects therefore depend on whatever mediums the wave passed through before being observed. The most dramatic impacts to solar radio emission occur in the corona and in Earth's ionosphere. There are three primary effects ...